“We can say to the king of kings himself, God, as does the king today, give grace that in thy service I may find perfect freedom,” Justin Welby, the Archbishop of Canterbury, said during a service at historic Westminster Abbey. “By that prayer for every king, for every ruler, and, yes, for every person, all of us, we are opened to the transforming love of God.”

The coronation was a smaller affair than Queen Elizabeth’s in 1953.

About 2,300 dignitaries were invited to attend the two-hour service at Westminster Abbey, including 100 heads of state and members of international royalty.

Organisers opted not to install extra seating to accommodate more people because it would require the 13th-century building to have been closed for five months and could have been potentially damaging to the church. About 8,000 people attended Queen Elizabeth’s coronation.

The processional route following the ceremony also was only 2km (1.3 miles), compared with the 8km route taken during the queen’s coronation 70 years ago.

Russia, Syria, Afghanistan, Belarus, Myanmar, Iran and Venezuela are the only countries known not to have been invited to the ceremony.

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Chinese President Xi Jinping and his US counterpart Joe Biden were invited, but did not attend. Chinese Vice-President Han Zheng and US first lady Jill Biden were present as their representatives.

Biden tweeted that US-UK relationship was “a source of strength for both our peoples” and that he was “proud” his wife could be there for the “historic occasion”.

French President Emmanuel Macron and European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen were among other world leaders who attended.

The extension of an invitation to Han rankled some members of the ruling Conservative Party after he oversaw the Central Coordination Group on Hong Kong and Macau Affairs during civil unrest in the city in 2019, and the subsequent introduction of the controversial national security law the following year.

British officials hope the invitation might help to improve relations between the two countries, with Foreign Secretary James Cleverly set to meet Han in London.

The Metropolitan Police undertook a major security operation, deploying mounted police, snipers, marine patrols and facial recognition technology to protect the high-level dignitaries and more than 2 million members of the general public expected to travel to London.

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Days before for the event, the UK parliament enacted new laws that allow police to jail protesters for up to a year in jail for blocking roads.

The new laws are a response to aggressive tactics by climate protesters draw attention to their cause, such as “slow walking” to stall traffic and locking themselves to buildings or bridge overpasses.

Several members of the antimonarchist group Republic and climate campaigners Just Stop Oil were arrested as they planned protest during the coronation proceedings, the groups said.

The congregation at Westminster Abbey included several celebrities who have served as ambassadors or been helped early in their careers by The Prince’s Trust or The Prince’s Foundation, two charities where the king has served as patron.

Notable attendees who made the guest list include pop singer Lionel Richie; British television presenters Anthony McPartlin and Declan Donnelly; and Kelly Jones, the lead singer of the Stereophonics.

The Anglican religious service dates back 1,000 years, but included representatives from other faiths to reflect the diversity of today’s Britain.

As part of an effort to be more inclusive and reflect modern British society, several women of colour were chosen to carry royal regalia to the altar as part of the procession.

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The coronation comes at a challenging time for the monarchy, with some actively questioning the future place of the royal family in British society, particularly following the death of the queen, who had become a beloved figure globally during her reign.

During the service, the general public were encouraged to swear allegiance to the king, an act previously been reserved for those holding titles or members of the nobility during coronations. Critics have called the move “nonsense”.

Others have questioned whether such an ornate ceremony should be undertaken during a cost of living crisis in the country.

However, Buckingham Palace has said it expects the celebrations to create an “enormous economic boost” to the nation during the three-day weekend.

The weekend festivities surrounding the coronation could provide as much as an £8 billion (US$10 billion) boost to Britain’s economy, according to a report by British online coupon site vouchercodes.co.uk.

Hearkening back to the coronation of Queen Elizabeth in 1953, King Charles and his wife Queen Camilla rode back to Buckingham Palace in the Gold State Coach in an ornate processional that featured about 7,000 troops marching or positioned along the route.

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The carriage has been used in every coronation since 1831, but Queen Elizabeth revealed in a 2018 documentary that she disliked riding in the coach.

“Horrible. It was not meant for travelling at all,” she said at the time.

As has become tradition during big events involving the monarch, the day was capped with a flyover of military aircraft as the royal family looked on from the balcony at Buckingham Palace.

Rainy weather and low clouds limited the number of aircraft that could participate, with as many as 60 aircraft from World War II to modern jets originally expected to be involved.